Phonetics (Gr. φωνή = voice, sound) is the the study of speech sounds. It investigates and tries to describe how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and interpreted in the speech chain.
Subdisciplines of Phonetics
We can distinguish between three different sub-disciplines of phonetics:
| subdiscipline | area(s) of investigation |
|---|---|
| articulatory phonetics | deals with the movements and constellations of the vocal organs in producing individual sounds |
| acoustic phonetics | investigates physical properties of sounds and their transmission |
| auditory phonetics | deals with the excitation and constellations of the auditory organs (and the brain) in interpreting individual sounds |
Types of Sounds & Phonetic Symbols
In this section, we’ll have a look at which types of sounds exist and how they can be classified from a phonetic point of view. We can initially distinguish between two different types, vowels & consonants. The former are characterised by a relatively free and unimpeded flow of air through the vocal tract and mainly depend on the constellation of the lower jaw, the tongue and the lips. Consonants, in contrast, are in most cases produced by considerably narrowing or even closing off and opening the vocal tract. Thus, it can easily be seen that vowels are sounds that can usually be sustained for a fairly long period of time, whereas this is rather more difficult to achieve for consonants.
Vowels
Among the vowels, we can basically distinguish between two major classes, those that consist of a single, essentially stable and non-changing sound, and those that involve a combination of multiple sounds and movements between them. The first type are referred to as monophthongs, and the second type comprises diphthongs (combinations of two sounds) and triphthongs (combinations of three sounds). For the English monophthongs, we can draw a further distinction between long (i:, ɜ:, ɑ: (a:), o: (ɔ:), u:) and short (ɪ, i, ɛ (e), ə, a (æ), ʌ, ɒ, ʊ) ones, although there is usually not simply a difference in length between them, but also one of quality. Generally, vowels in English are also voiced, i.e. the vocal folds inside the larynx (more colloquially referred to as ‘Adam’s apple’) open and close at regular intervals during their production.
Vowels in English can be described according to their degree of openness – i.e. in relation to the position of the lower jaw and the mass of tongue –, the degree of backness – how far back the tongue is inside the mouth –, and according to lip rounding, where the general rule for English is that lip rounding increases with the degree of backness. To illustrate these properties, a so-called vowel chart that represents the relative positions of the mass of the tongue inside the mouth for each vowel, is generally used. You can find such a chart (as well as charts that illustrate the movements for diphthongs), linked to sound files for the individual vowels, on the vowels page of my phonetics course.
Exercises
- Go through the vowel chart and familiarise yourself with the individual symbols and their associated sounds. Try to imitate each one in turn until you’re confident that you can reproduce it adequately, paying particular attention to the position of your tongue.
- Try to explain the difference between /i:/ and /ʊ/, using the criteria for distinguishing vowels listed above, as well as making reference to their length.
Consonants
Consonants can be classified according to whether they are voiced or voiceless, their manner of articulation, as well as their place of articulation. For manner of articulation we can distinguish between:
- plosives (including nasals): complete closure of the mouth to build up energy which is then explosively released
/p/ & /b/, /t/ & /d/, /k/ & /g/; /ʔ/; /m/, /n/ & /ŋ/ - fricatives: incomplete closure that produces a kind of turbulence and consequently a ‘whistling’ effect
/f/ & /v/, /θ/ & /ð/, /s/ & /z/, /ʃ/ & /ʒ/, and /h/ - affricates: a combination of a plosive, followed by a fricative
/tʃ/ & /dʒ/; /tɹ/ & /dɹ/ - laterals and approximants (semi-vowels)
/l/; /ɹ/, /j/, /w/
As far as place of articulation is concerned, we can distinguish between the following types of articulation:
- bi-labial: involving both lips
/p/, /b/ & /m/ - labio-dental: involving the upper teeth and the lower lip
/f/ & /v/ - dental
/θ/ & /ð/ - alveolar: at the ridge just behind the upper teeth
/t/, /d/, /n/; /s/, /z/; /ɹ/, /l/ - palato-alveolar: between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate
/ʃ/ & /ʒ/; /tʃ/ & /dʒ/ - palatal: at the hard palate
/j/ - velar: at the soft palate
/k/, /g/, /ŋ/ - glottal: inside the throat
/h/; /ʔ/
Detailed information on the individual properties of the consonants that occur in English can be found on the consonants page of my phonetics course.
Phonetic Transcription
Phonetic Transcription, also known as narrow transcription, uses square brackets ([]) to indicate that we want to represent phonetic detail, rather than an abstract representation of what was said or how something is usually assumed to be said in a particular accent/language. The latter is something we represent in phonemic transcription, which we’ll discuss later.
If you want to practise phonetic transcription on the computer, you can use my web based transcription editor.
Exercises
- Read the following transcribed piece of text from a well-known children’s book and try to convert it into its original written form. Please note, though, that this transcription contains features of connected speech that we won’t be able to cover here, but that you should at least be aware of. This includes ‘dropping’ of some phonemes (elision) and also neighbouring phonemes influencing each other to change their form so that they become more alike one another (assimilation). To make things a little easier for you, I have provided the transcription as one ‘sentence’ per line.
ðəwɜ:sbɜ:θdeɪ|| nɒtfəðəfɜːstaɪmənɑːgjʊmənthəbrəʊkŋaʊtəʊvəbrɛkfəstətnʌmbəfo:prɪvədraɪv|| mɪstəvɜːnəndɜ:zliʲəbi:mwəʊkŋɪniːʲɜːliʲaʊʷəzəvəmoːnɪŋbaɪəlaudhuːtɪŋnɔɪzfrəmɪznɛfjuːhariːzruːm|| θɜ:taɪmðɪswi:ki:ro:dəkrɒsəteɪbl|| ɪfju:kɑːŋkəntrəʊlataʊl|ɪtlavtəgəʊ|| hariːtraɪdjɛtəgeɪntʊʷɪkspleɪn|| ʃɪzbo:dɪsɛd|| ʃɪzju:ztəflaʲɪŋəraʊndaʊtsaɪd|| ɪfaɪkədʒəstlɛtəɹaʊtətnaɪt|| duʷaɪlʊkstjuːpɪd|snɑːldʌŋklvɜːnən|əbɪtəfraɪdɛgdaŋglɪŋfrəmɪzbʊʃiməstʌʃ|| aɪnəʊwɒtlhapmɪfðətaʊlzlɛtaʊt|| hi:ʲɪkstʃeɪndʒdɑːklʊkswɪðɪzwaɪfpətjuːnjə|| hariːtraɪtʊʷɑːgju:bak|bətɪzwɜːdzwədraʊmbaɪʲəlɒŋlaʊbbɛltʃfrəmðədɜ:zlɪsʌn|dʌdli|| - Transcribe, to the best of your abilities, the following extract from Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein:
I trembled excessively; I could not endure to think of, and far less to allude to, the occurrences of the preceding night. I walked with a quick pace, and we soon arrived at my college. I then reflected, and the thought made me shiver, that the creature whom I had left in my apartment might still be there, alive and walking about. I dreaded to behold this monster, but I feared still more that Henry should see him. Entreating him, therefore, to remain a few minutes at the bottom of the stairs, I darted up towards my own room. My hand was already on the lock of the door before I recollected myself. I then paused, and a cold shivering came over me. I threw the door forcibly open, as children are accustomed to do when they expect a spectre to stand in waiting for them on the other side; but nothing appeared. I stepped fearfully in: the apartment was empty, and my bedroom was also freed from its hideous guest. I could hardly believe that so great a good fortune could have befallen me, but when I became assured that my enemy had indeed fled, I clapped my hands for joy and ran down to Clerval. For transcribing standard symbols, simply use the keyboard. To insert phonetic characters, click the relevant button below the box.
Sources & Further Reading:
For further details and references, see my phonetics & phonology course.